Table 1 Sociodemographic characteristics of respondents (n = 10,134)

Predisposing factors

Sex

 Male

4,781

8,883,519

48.6

47.3

50.0

2,861

50.1

48.5

51.7

1,920

43.9

41.5

46.3

 < 0.001

 Female

5,353

9,379,003

51.4

50.0

52.7

3,210

49.9

48.3

51.5

2,143

56.1

53.7

58.5

Ethnicity

 Malay^a

6,995

10,435,997

57.1

52.8

61.4

3,833

52.8

47.5

58.0

3,162

71.2

65.6

76.2

 < 0.001

 Non-Malay

3,139

7,826,526

42.9

38.6

47.2

2,238

47.2

42.0

52.5

901

28.8

23.8

34.4

Age (years)

 18–34

3,150

7,520,071

41.2

39.7

42.7

1,987

41.1

39.2

42.9

1,163

41.6

39.1

44.0

 < 0.001

 35–59

4,672

7,681,423

42.1

40.7

43.5

2,916

43.6

41.9

45.3

1,756

37.1

35.0

39.3

 60 + 

2,312

3,061,029

16.8

15.5

18.1

1,168

15.3

13.9

16.9

1,144

21.3

19.0

23.8

Education level

 No formal

516

686,101

3.8

3.3

4.3

215

2.7

2.2

3.4

301

7.1

6.1

8.2

 < 0.001

 Primary

2,130

3,202,730

17.5

16.3

18.9

972

14.8

13.4

16.4

1,158

26.3

24.0

28.8

 Secondary

4,927

9,265,577

50.7

49.0

52.5

2,981

51.2

49.1

53.3

1,946

49.2

46.7

51.7

 Tertiary

2,561

5,108,115

28.0

26.1

30.0

1,903

31.3

28.9

33.7

658

17.4

14.9

20.2

Marital status

 Single

2,139

5,145,131

28.2

26.5

29.9

1,354

28.5

26.5

30.6

785

27.2

24.6

30.0

0.133

 Married

6,866

11,540,085

63.2

61.4

65.0

4,085

63.3

61.1

65.5

2,781

62.7

59.8

65.5

 Not married^b

1,129

1,577,306

8.6

7.8

9.5

632

8.2

7.8

9.5

497

10.1

8.9

11.5

Enabling factors

Employment status

 Government

1,124

1,445,188

7.9

7.0

9.0

768

8.0

6.9

9.3

356

7.6

6.1

9.5

 < 0.001

 Private

2,775

6,121,094

33.5

31.6

35.5

1,946

38.1

35.7

40.6

829

18.7

16.2

21.5

 Self-employed

1,931

3,418,402

18.7

17.4

20.1

935

16.7

15.2

18.4

996

25.1

22.6

27.8

 Unemployed

4,304

7,277,838

39.9

38.2

41.5

2,422

37.2

45.5

51.6

1,882

48.5

45.5

51.6

Income level

 Q1 (RM0 – RM1,100)

2,206

3,811,908

20.9

19.3

22.5

1,039

17.1

15.4

18.9

1,167

33.1

29.7

36.7

 < 0.001

 Q2 (RM1,108 – RM2,100)

1,937

3,294,700

18.0

16.5

19.7

997

15.6

13.8

17.6

940

25.8

22.9

28.9

 Q3 (RM2,103 – RM3,400)

1,950

3,652,054

20.0

18.0

22.2

1,153

20.5

18.1

23.2

797

18.2

15.6

21.2

 Q4 (RM3,410 – RM5,900)

2,018

3,655,678

20.0

18.2

22.0

1,370

22.3

20.0

24.8

648

12.6

10.4

15.2

 Q5 (RM5,930 – RM70,000)

2,023

3,848,182

21.1

18.7

23.7

1,512

24.4

21.5

27.7

511

10.2

7.9

13.2

Supplemental healthcare coverage

 Yes

5,395

10,062,046

55.1

52.9

57.3

3,722

60.5

57.8

63.1

1,673

37.8

34.3

41.3

 < 0.001

 No

4,739

8,200,476

44.9

42.7

47.1

2,349

39.5

36.9

42.2

2,390

62.2

58.7

65.7

Health need factors

Self-rated health

 Good to excellent

7,601

14,354,360

78.6

77.0

80.1

4,646

80.2

78.5

81.9

2,955

73.4

70.2

76.4

 < 0.001

 Fair

2,283

3,536,412

19.4

18.0

20.8

1,282

17.8

16.2

19.5

1,001

24.3

21.6

27.3

 Very poor to poor

250

371,750

2.0

1.7

2.4

143

2.0

1.6

2.4

107

2.3

1.7

3.0

Presence of at least one non-communicable diseases

 Yes

3,021

4,468,542

24.5

23.2

25.8

1,740

24.2

22.6

25.8

1,281

25.4

23.7

27.3

0.296

 No

7,113

13,793,980

75.5

74.2

76.8

4,331

75.8

74.2

77.4

2,782

74.6

72.7

76.3