Table 1 Summary of the included studies. a) studies reporting prevalences at follow-up assessments for different age groups b) studies reporting general prevalence over the entire cohort

a) Studies reporting prevalences at follow-up appointments for different age groups

 Abdelaziz 2022 [27]

2017

1

dental clinic

Geneve, Switzerland

Western Europe

23320

6–12

ng

6.6

 Amend 2021 [28]

2015

1

classroom

Urban Hassonia, Germany

Western Europe

2103

6–12

52.2

13.5

 Hong 2017 [29]

2015

1

ng

Suzhou China

East Asia

1145

7–12

53

4.45

 Kukleva 2008 [30]

2006

1

classroom

Plovdiv, Bulgaria

Central Europe

2960

7–14

50

3.58

 Oyedele 2015_b [31]

2011

2

classroom

Nigeria

Western Sub-Sahara

2107

12.57 ± 2.39

46.6

12.7

 Quispe 2021 [32]

2019

1

classroom

Puno, Peru

Latin America & Caribbean

404

8.4 ± 0.9

44.1

19.8

 Rai 2019 [33]

2018

1

classroom

Karnataka India

South Asia

1600

9–12

49.1

13.12

 Thakur 2020 [34]

2017

1

classroom

Pradesh India

South Asia

2000

8–16

51.7

2.9

 Verma 2022 [35]

2019

1

classroom

Lucknow, Indien

South Asia

5585

8–16

50.0

7.6

 Yannam 2016 [36]

2012

1

classroom

Chennai India

South Asia

2864

8–12

52.3

9.7

 Yi 2021 [37]

2015

1

classroom

Beijing China

East Asia

6523

12–15

49.5

10

b) Studies reporting general prevalence over the entire cohort

 Ahmad 2019 [38]

2013

1

classroom

Dubai gov schools

North Africa and Middle East

779

8.1 ± 0.8

33.9

7.59

 Ahmadi 2012 [39]

2009

2

classroom

Zahedan, Iran

North Africa and Middle East

433

7–9

49.7

12.7

 Al-Hammad 2018 [40]

2015

1

classroom

Riyadh, Saudi-Arabia

North Africa and Middle East

924

8–10 (9.1)

48.4

40.7

 Allazzam 2014 [41]

2011

1

dental clinic

Jeddah, Saudi-Arabia

North Africa and Middle East

267

8–12, 9.4 ± 1.4

50.2

8.6

 Americano 2017 [42]

2012

1

dental clinic

RiodJaneiro, Brazil

Tropical Latin America

98

9.26 ± 0.8

54.1

13.3

 Arheiam 2021 [43]

2019

1

classroom

Benghazi, Libya

North Africa and Middle East

1047

8–11

47.5

15.5

 Arslanagic 2020 [44]

2009

1

classroom

Sarajevo, Bosnia

Central Europe

444

6–9

47

11.5

 Bahrololoomi 2017 [45]

2014

1

classroom

Yazd City

North Africa and Middle East

645

7–11

ng

23.9

 Balmer 2015a [46]

2002

2

dental clinic

ng

Western Europe

25

11.3 ± 2.41

36

40

 Balmer 2015b [47]

2002

2

dental clinic

Sydney AUS

High-income Asia Pacific

25

11.9 ± 2.31

28

44

 Balmer 2012 [48]

2009

2

classroom

ng

Western Europe

3233

12

ng

15.9

 Bhaskar 2014 [49]

2012

1

dental clinic

Udaipur India

South Asia

1173

8–13

54.3

9.46

 Biondi 2011 [50]

2010

1

dental clinic

Buenos Aires Argentina

Southern Latin America

1098

11.3

ng

15.9

 Biondi 2012 [51]

2010

1

dental clinic

Buenos Aires / Montevideo

Southern Latin America

975

11.6 ± 2.67

50

6.56

 Bonzanini 2021 [52]

2019

1

classroom

Southern Brazil

Latin America and Caribbean 5

513

11.6 ± 1.9

45.2

19.7

 Buchgrabner 2018 [53]

2010

1

dental clinic

Graz, Austria

Western Europe

1111

9.0 ± 1.2

49.2

7

 Calderara 2005 [54]

2001

1

classroom

Lissone I

Western Europe

227

7.7

50.2

13.7

 Da Costa Silva 2010 [55]

2008

1

classroom

Bothelos Brazil

Tropical Latin America

918

6–12

44.7

19.8

 Da Costa Silva 2017 [56]

2012

1

classroom

Bothelos Brazil

Tropical Latin America

142

5.6

ng

16.19

 Da Silva 2020 [57]

2016

1

dental clinic

Brazil (Rio de Janeiro)

Tropical Latin America

407

7–14, 10.1 ± 2.1

62.7

14.5

 Da Silva J. 2015 [58]

2013

1

classroom

Belém Brazil

Tropical Latin America

260

10.22

56.9

8.84

 Dantas-Neta 2016 [59]

2012

1

classroom

Teresina Brazil

Tropical Latin America

594

11–14, 12.45 ± 1.11

ng

18.4

 Davenport 2019 [60]

2015

1

classroom

Milwaukee USA

High-income North America

375

7–12, 8.66

37.9

9.6

 Dietrich 2003 [61]

2002

2

classroom

Dresden Germany

Western Europe

2408

10–17

ng

5.6

 Ditto 2018 [62]

2017

1

classroom

Bahrain

North Africa and Middle East

760

7–9, 8.4

48.3

17.8

 Dourado 2020 [63]

2016

1

classroom

Sao Raimundo Brazil

Tropical Latin America

246

8–14, 10.83 ± 1.93

53.7

46.6

 Duarte 2021 [64]

2017

0

classroom

Paranoa, Brazil

Latin America and Caribbean 6

400

12 ± 1

42.8

18

 Durmus 2013 [65]

2011

1

dental clinic

Marmar Turkey

North Africa and Middle East

228

7–14, 9.9 ± 1.7

54.4

24

 Einollahi 2020 [66]

2019

1

classroom

Ardebil Iran

North Africa and Middle East

520

8–10

46.5

24

 Elfrink 2012 [67]

2010

1

dental clinic

Rotterdamm

Western Europe

6161

6.2, 2.5SD

50.2

8.7

 Elsoud 2019 [68]

2019

1

classroom

Suez-Canal-Region Egypt

North Africa and Middle East

1312

8–12

54.1

9.98

 Emmatty 2020 [69]

2017

1

classroom

Kerala India

South Asia

5318

8–15

50.9

4.1

 Farias 2021 [70]

2018

1

dental clinic

Medelin Columbia

Central Latin America

453

14.4, SD1.1

49.7

31

 Farias L. 2021 [71]

2018

1

classroom

Campina Grande Brazil

Tropical Latin America

471

8–10

43.7

9.8

 Fatturi 2020 [72]

2017

1

classroom

Curitiba Brazil

Tropical Latin America

731

8

51.2

12

 Fernandes 2020 [73]

2019

1

classroom

Sao Joao do Rio Peixe Brazil

Tropical Latin America

610

6–12

53.9

9.8

 Flexeder 2020 [74]

2017

1

ng

Munich, Germany

Western Europe

730

15

ng

13.8

 Folayan 2018 [75]

2010

1

classroom

Southwest Nigeria

Western Sub-Saharan Africa

853

6–16

51.3

2.9

 Fragelli 2021 [76]

2014

1

classroom

Araraquara Brazil

Tropical Latin America

467

8–12

45.8

19.7

 Freitas-Fernandes 2021 [77]

2019

1

classroom

Campina Grande Brazil

Tropical Latin America

463

11–14, 12.1

36.7

10.8

 Fteita 2006 [78]

2004

1

classroom

Beghazi Libya

North Africa and Middle East

378

7.8

50.3

2.9

 Gambetta-Tessini 2018 [79]

2015

1

ng

Melbourne AUS

High-income Asia Pacific

327

6–12

52.9

14.7

 Gambetta-Tessini 2019 [80]

2016

1

classroom

Talca Chile

Southern Latin America

577

6–12

48.2

15.8

 García Margarit 2014 [81]

2009

1

classroom

Valencia

Western Europe

840

8

51

21.8

 Georgieva-Dimitrova 2019 [82]

2018

1

dental clinic

Varna Bulgaria

Central Europe

1183

6–12

ng

6

 Ghanim 2012 [83]

2010

1

classroom

Mosul Iraq

North Africa and Middle East

823

7–9, 8.1

57.2

18.6

 Ghanim 2014 [84]

2012

1

classroom

Mosul Iraq

North Africa and Middle East

810

9–11

44.4

20.2

 Glodwanska 2020 [85]

2018

1

classroom

Silasian, Pomeranian Poland

Central Europe

2354

6–12, 8.8, SD 1.89

50

9.32

 Gorbatova 2019 [86]

2016

1

ng

North-West Russia

Eastern Europe 20

1233

12

47

2.1

 Goswami 2019 [87]

2016

1

ng

Dheli India

South Asia

1026

6–12, 9.17, SD1.17

52

1.17

 Groselj 2013 [88]

2005

2

dental clinic

Slovenia

Central Europe

478

9.1 ± 1.4

55.6

21.4

 Gurrusquieta 2017 [89]

2014

1

classroom

Mexico City

Central Latin America

1156

8.4 ± 1.6

49.7

15.8

 Gutierrez 2019 [90]

2018

1

ng

Naucalpan Mexico

Central Latin America

411

8–10

ng

40.4

 Hamdan 2020 [91]

2015

1

classroom

Amman Jordan

North Africa and Middle East

1412

8–9

51.6

13.17

 Hanan 2015 [92]

2014

1

classroom

Campina Grande Brazil

Tropical Latin America

2062

6–10

50

9.12

 Hartsock 2020 [93]

2019

1

dental clinic

Milwaukee USA

High-income North America

104

5–32, 17.4

38.5

9.6

 Hernandez 2018 [94]

2016

1

dental clinic

Barcelona Spain

Western Europe

705

6–15

48.8

7.94

 Hertel 2017 [95]

2011

2

classroom

Dresden Germany

Western Europe

7051

7–9

49.9

5.6

 Hoyte 2020 [96]

2016

1

classroom

Trinidad and Tobago

Latin America and Caribbean

532

11.9

43

1.3

 Hussain 2018 [97]

2015

1

ng

Dubai

Andean Latin America

342

9.4 ± 1.2

37.1

27.2

 Hussein 2015 [98]

2012

1

dental clinic

Malaysia

Southeast Asia

154

9.14 ± 1.682

43.5

16.9

 Hysi 2016 [99]

2014

1

classroom

Tirana Albania

Central Europe

1575

8.84 ± 0.85

52.8

14

 Irigoyen-Camacho 2020a [100]

2008

1

classroom

Mexico City 2008

Central Latin America

232

7.0(± 0.63)

50.4

20.3

 Irigoyen-Camacho 2020b [100]

2017

1

classroom

Mexico City 2008

Central Latin America

317

7.1(± 0.62)

46.1

31.9

 Jalevik 2001 [101]

1999

0

classroom

Kallered, Mölndal Sweden

Western Europe

516

8.3

51

18.4

 Jalevik 2018a [102]

2012

0

dental clinic

Vestra Sweden

Western Europe

263

11

ng

17.1

 Jalevik 2018b [102]

2012

0

dental clinic

Vestra Sweden

Western Europe

267

15

ng

11.2

 Jalevik 2018c [102]

2012

0

dental clinic

Vestra Sweden

Western Europe

266

19

ng

8.3

 Jankovic 2014 [103]

2006

1

classroom

Foca Bosnia Herzegovina

Central Europe

141

8

50.4

12.8

 Jasulaityte 2007 [104]

2005

1

classroom

Kauna Lithuania

Eastern Europe 20

1277

7–9, 7.9

50.7

9.7

 Jasulaityte 2008 [105]

2003

1

dentalbus

Kauna Lithuania

Western Europe

442

9

50.2

14.3

 Jeremias 2013 [106]

2009

1

outdoor

Campina Grande Brazil

Tropical Latin America

1157

6–12, 8.84

46.2

12.3

 Jurlina 2020 [107]

2017

1

classroom

Eastern Croatia

Central Europe

729

8.21 (± 0.12)

51.2

13

 Kemoli 2008

2006

1

classroom

Matungula, Kangudno Kenia

Eastern Sub-Saharan Africa

3591

6–8

55.6

13.73

 Kevrekidou 2015a [108]

2013

1

classroom

Greece

Western Europe

1179

8

ng

21.5

 Kevrekidou 2015b [108]

2013

1

classroom

Greece

Western Europe

1156

14

ng

21

 Kilinc 2019 [109]

2017

1

dental clinic

Izmir Turkey

North Africa and Middle East

1237

9–10

ng

11.5

 Kim 2016 [110]

2013

1

ng

Melbourne AUS

High-income Asia Pacific

950

8–9, 8.4

58.2

7.1

 Kirthiga 2015 [111]

2013

1

classroom

Davangere, Karnataka, India

South Asia

2000

11–16

58.7

8.9

 Koruyucu 2018a [112]

2014

1

classroom

Istanbul, Turkey

North Africa and Middle East

719

8

ng

9.9

 Koruyucu 2018b [112]

2014

1

classroom

Istanbul, Turkey

North Africa and Middle East

792

11

ng

18.2

 Krishnan 2015 [113]

2014

1

classroom

Tamilnadu, India

South Asia

4989

8–14

43.3

7.7

 Kühnisch 2014 [114]

2006

1

ng

Germany

Western Europe

639

10.2

52.3

14.7

 Kühnisch 2018 [115]

2012

1

ng

Germany

Western Europe

1302

15.3

50

17.2

 Kusku 2008 [116]

2007

1

dental clinic

Istanbul, Turkey

North Africa and Middle East

147

7–9

ng

14.9

 Kuscu 2009 [117]

2007

1

classroom

Islands Turkey

North Africa and Middle East

153

7–10

ng

9.2

 Li 2012 [118]

2009

1

ng

Wenzhou China

East Asia

988

6–11

ng

25.5

 Llena 2020 [119]

2018

1

ng

Valencia Spain

Western Europe

278

12 ± 7 M

ng

23.02

 Lopez 2014a [120]

2010

1

ng

Buenos Aires

Southern Latin America

1090

13.18 ± 2.55

ng

16.15

 Lopez 2014b [120]

2010

1

ng

Montevideo

Southern Latin America

626

12.53 ± 2.68

ng

12.3

 Lygidakis 2008 [121]

2004

1

ng

Athens, Greece

Western Europe

3518

5.5–12, 8.17 ± 1.38

ng

10.2

 Mahima 2020 [122]

2014

1

ng

Pune India

South Asia

1400

8–11

50.7

7.4

 Mahoney 2009 [123]

2008

2

classroom

Wainuiomata, New Zealand

High-income Asia Pacific

522

8.2 ± 1.2

46

14.9

 Mahoney 2011 [124]

2008

2

classroom

Wellington New Zealand

High-income Asia Pacific

234

8.2 ± 1.1

50

18.8

 Martinez-Gomez 2011 [125]

2009

1

dental clinic

Catalunya Spain

Western Europe

505

6–14

51.3

17.85

 Martinovic 2017a [126]

2016

1

dental clinic

Kosovo

Central Europe

289

8

ng

10.7

 Martinovic 2017b [126]

2016

1

dental clinic

Kosovo

Central Europe

423

10

ng

13.2

 Mejia 2019 [127]

2012

1

classroom

Medellin, Colombia

Central Latin America

1075

9.3 ± 1.9

70.7

11.2

 Menoncin 2019 [128]

2017

1

classroom

Curitiba brazil

Tropical Latin America

731

8

51.2

12

 Mishra 2016 [129]

2013

1

ng

ng

South Asia

1369

8–12, 10.25 ± 1.25

ng

13.9

 Mittal 2014 [130]

2010

1

classroom

Northern India

South Asia

1792

6–9, 7.66 ± 0.976

ng

6.31

 Mittal 2016a [131]

2013

1

classroom

Gautam Budh Nagar, India

South Asia

1726

12–16

ng

13.21

 Mittal 2016b [131]

2013

1

classroom

Nagpur India

South Asia

886

6–12

ng

7.11

 Mulic 2017 [132]

2013

1

classroom

Kljuc, Bosnia Herzegovina

Central Europe

103

8–9

60.2

11.7

 Munoz 2011 [133]

2008

1

dental clinic

La Frontera Chile

Southern Latin America

334

9.8 ± 1.9

50

16.8

 Muratbegovic 2008 [134]

2004

1

classroom

Bosnia Herzegovina

Central Europe

560

12

ng

12.3

 Murrieta-Pruneda 2016 [135]

2014

1

ng

Mexico

Central Latin America

433

8–12, 9.8 ± 1.3

54.3

13.9

 Negre-Barber 2018 [136]

2013

1

dental clinic

Valencia Spain

Western Europe

414

8–9

51.2

24.2

 Ng 2015 [137]

2011

1

dental clinic

Singapore

Southeast Asia

1083

7.7 ± 0.3

43.9

12.5

 Nisii 2022 [138]

2020

0

classroom

Rome, Italy

Andean Latin America 3

346

8 ± 0.2

49.4

18.2

 Nsour 2018 [139]

2015

1

ng

Amman Jordan

North Africa and Middle East

600

7–9

58

17.3

 Ofi 2015 [140]

2014

1

ng

Al Najaf Iraq

North Africa and Middle East

532

7–9

54.3

25.8

 Ordonez 2019 [141]

2016

1

classroom

Dubai

Andean Latin America

294

7–12

35.7

9.24

 Orellana-Herrera 2020 [142]

2014

2

dental clinic

Talca City Chile

Southern Latin America

318

6

ng

19.8

 Oyedele 2015_a [143]

2011

1

classroom

Nigeria

Western Sub-Saharan Africa

469

9.0 ± 0.9

54.4

17.7

 Petrou 2014 [144]

2012

1

classroom

Germany

Western Europe

2395

8.1 ± 0.8

49.9

10.1

 Pitiphat 2014a [145]

2012

1

classroom

Thailand

Southeast Asia

282

8.0 ± 0.5

47.5

27.7

 Pitiphat 2014b [146]

2012

1

classroom

Thailand

Southeast Asia

484

6.5 ± 0.3

49.2

20

 Portella 2019 [147]

2017

1

classroom

Curitiba brazil

Tropical Latin America

728

8

51.1

12.1

 Poureslami 2018 [148]

2016

1

classroom

Kerman Iran

North Africa and Middle East

779

7–12

52.9

6.5

 Preusser 2007 [149]

2004

1

classroom

Hessen Germany

Western Europe

1002

6–12

50.5

5.9

 Rai 2018 [33]

2015

2

classroom

Muradnagar India

South Asia

992

7–9

53.6

21.4

 Raposo 2019 [16]

2018

1

classroom

Brazil

Tropical Latin America

631

8

ng

16

 Ray 2020 [150]

2018

1

ng

Odisha India

South Asia

1525

8–12

59

5.7

 Reis 2021 [151]

2018

1

classroom

Minas Gerais, Brazil

Latin America and Caribbean 5

450

8

50.4

28.7

 Rizk 2018 [152]

2017

1

classroom

Qassim Saudi Arabia

North Africa and Middle East

411

7–9

ng

25.1

 Rodriguez-Rodriguet 2021 [153]

2020

1

classroom

Venezuela

Latin America and Caribbean 6

121

8.83 ± 1.61

42.3

25.6

 Saber 2018 [154]

2015

1

dental clinic

Egypt

North Africa and Middle East

1001

8–12

49.9

2.3

 Saitoh 2018 [155]

2015

1

dental clinic

Japan

High-income Asia Pacific

4496

7–9

49.3

19.8

 Sakly 2018 [156]

2018

1

classroom

Tunisia

North Africa and Middle East

510

7–12

49.6

35.4

 Salem 2016 [157]

2015

1

ng

ng

North Africa and Middle East

553

6–13

ng

18.4

 Salih 2012 [158]

2009

1

ng

Baghdad Iraq

North Africa and Middle East

227

4–15

ng

6.61

 Santos 2019 [159]

2015

1

classroom

Florianopolis Brazil

Tropical Latin America

1589

8.9 ± 0.8

42.4

9.5

 Schmalfuss 2016 [160]

2011

1

ng

Northern Norway

Western Europe

794

16.6 ± 0.33

52.1

13.9

 Shin 2010 [161]

2009

1

classroom

Südkorea

High-income Asia Pacific

1344

8–12

52.6

6

 Shin 2017 [162]

2013

1

classroom

Südkorea

High-income Asia Pacific

1371

14–16

55.8

13.8

 Shojaeepour 2020 [163]

2017

1

classroom

Kerman Iran

North Africa and Middle East

2507

10.5 ± 1.0

71.6

5.14

 Shrestha 2014 [164]

2014

1

classroom

Nepal

South Asia

749

7–12

45.7

13.7

 Sidaly 2017 [165]

2014

1

ng

Oslo

Western Europe

157

9.0 ± 0.8

49.7

25.4

 Singh 2020 [166]

2018

1

classroom

Delhi India

South Asia

649

7–10

ng

15

 Sönmez 2013 [167]

2006

1

classroom

Ankara Turky

North Africa and Middle East

4018

7–12

50.3

7.7

 Sosa-Soto 2021 [168]

2018

1

classroom

Mexico

Central Latin America

613

8.6 ± 0.41

51.9

12.4

 Subramaniam 2016 [169]

2013

1

classroom

Bengaluru City India

South Asia

2500

7–9

55.8

0.48

 Tadikonda 2015 [170]

2014

1

classroom

Udupi India

South Asia

352

12.97 ± 1.2

51.1

27

 Tagelsir 2020 [171]

2018

1

classroom

India

South Asia

337

9.1 ± 1.7

49.9

13

 Tarannum 2021 [172]

2018

1

classroom

Pradesh, Indien

South Asia

2250

8–14

53.3

2.1

 Temilola 2015a [173]

2012

1

haushold

ng

Western Sub-Saharan Africa

236

8–10

49.2

9.7

 Temilola 2015b [174]

2013

1

haushold

ng

Western Sub-Saharan Africa

1169

7.2 ± 4.3

49.2

4

 Tourino 2016 [175]

2014

1

outdoor

Florianopolis Brazil

Tropical Latin America

1181

8–9

49.3

20.4

 Villanueva-Gutiérrez 2019a [176]

2018

1

ng

Mexico

Central Latin America

506

9.74 ± 1.36

50.6

42.4

 Villanueva-Gutiérrez 2019b [177]

2016

1

ng

Mexico-City

Central Latin America

686

9.0 ± 1.4

46.8

35.4

 Wuollet 2016 [178]

2013

1

dental clinic

Finland

Western Europe

287

10.4 ± 1.3

55.4

11.5

 Wuollet 2018 [179]

2004

1

dental clinic

Finland

Western Europe

636

10.5 ± 1.4

51.7

18.1

 Zakirulla 2018 [180]

2015

1

classroom

Saudi Arabia

North Africa and Middle East

596

8.5

100

21.3

 Zawaideh 2011 [181]

2009

1

classroom

Jordan

North Africa and Middle East

3241

8.4 ± 0.7

52.5

17.6