Table 3 Variables pertaining to cocaine use and its impact on the incidence of cleft lip/palate assessed across the included articles

Fries et al. [15]

Identify distinctive features of cocaine-exposed infants; evaluate if these findings may indicate fetal cocaine syndrome.

Distinctive phenotype in infants exposed to cocaine, including CL/P, neurological irritability, and other abnormalities.

Suggestive evidence for a diagnosis of fetal cocaine syndrome, needs further confirmation.

Hume et al. [16]

Investigate the association between prenatal cocaine exposure and vascular disruption birth defects.

No clear association found between prenatal cocaine exposure and incidence of CL/P.

The putative association remained unresolved, and the risk is likely less than previously reported.

Stafford et al. [17]

Examine the impact of prenatal cocaine exposure on infant eye health as well as the incidence of other craniofacial deformities.

No significant differences observed in congenital eye anomalies or other craniofacial deformities between exposed and non-exposed infants.

Prenatal cocaine exposure did not appear to affect infant eye health in this study group.

Van Gelder et al. [18]

Assess the associations between periconceptional illicit drug use (cannabis, cocaine, stimulants) and birth defects.

Limited associations between periconceptional illicit drug use and selected birth defects; potential associations with anencephaly and CL/P.

Few positive associations found between periconceptional illicit drug use and birth defects.